Slot Machine Rewarding Pattern Fixed Or Variable
- Slot Machine Rewarding Pattern Fixed Or Variable Costs
- Slot Machine Rewarding Pattern Fixed Or Variable Sum
- Slot Machine Rewarding Pattern Fixed Or Variable Probability
Let’s talk about variable rewards In the 1950s, famed psychologist B.F. Skinner set up an experiment by giving lab rats two different levers that, when pressed, would give them pellets of food. The first lever yielded the same amount of food each time, while the second lever would sometimes yield a small pellet, sometimes a large pellet,. Similar to drugs of abuse, random-ratio reward schedules are highly motivating and, in humans, are thought to foster gambling addiction. Animal gambling models, however, have not yet demonstrated the compulsivity so characteristic of drug addiction. Three criteria have been used to evaluate addiction-like behavior in drug models: (1) response inhibition when reward is not available, (2. Slot machine designers know a lot about human behavior, and how it is influenced by experience (learning). They are required by law to give out on average a certain percentage of the amount put in over time (say 90% payout), but the schedule on which a slot machine's reinforcement is delivered is very carefully programmed in and planned (mainly.
By closely monitoring the occurrence of behaviors and the frequency of rewards, Skinner was able to look for patterns. Receiving a reward each time the lever is pressed would be an example of continuous reinforcement. But Skinner also wanted to know how behavior might change if the reward wasn’t always present. This is known as intermittent reinforcement (or partial reinforcement). By tracking the accumulated behavioral responses of animals in his operant boxes over time, Skinner could see how different reward schedules influenced the timing and frequency of behavior. Though each of these approaches could be varied in countless ways, there were 4 general types of schedules that Skinner tested.
Fixed-Ratio (The Vending Machine)
A fixed-ratio schedule follows a consistent pattern of reinforcing a certain number of behaviors. This may come in the form of rewarding every behavior (1:1) or only rewarding every 5th response (5:1), according to some set rule. Just as nobody continuously feeds coins to a broken vending machine, when the set ratio is violated (like when each level press no longer delivers food), animals quickly learn to reduce their behavior.
Variable-Ratio (The Slot Machine)
A variable-ratio schedule rewards a particular behavior but does so in an unpredictable fashion. The reinforcement may come after the 1st level press or the 15th, and then may follow immediately with the next press or perhaps not follow for another 10 presses. The unpredictable nature of a variable-ratio schedule can lead to a high frequency of behavior, as the animal (or human) may believe that the next press will “be the one” that delivers the reward.
This is the type of reinforcement seen in gambling, as each next play could provide the big payoff. Skinner found that behaviors rewarded with a variable-ratio schedule were most resistant to extinction. To illustrate this, consider a broken vending machine (fixed ratio) versus a broken slot machine (variable-ratio). How long would you keep putting money into a broken vending machine? You’d probably give up after your first or maybe second try didn’t result in a delicious Snickers bar. But now imagine playing a slot machine that is broken and unable to pay out (though everything else appears to be working). You might play 15 times or more before you cease your coin-inserting and button-pressing behavior.
Fixed-Interval (The Paycheck)
In a fixed-interval schedule, reinforcement for a behavior is provided only at fixed time intervals. The reward may be given after 1 minute, every 5 minutes, once an hour, etc. What Skinner found when implementing this schedule was that the frequency of behavior would increase as the time for the reward approached (ensuring that the animal gets the reward), but would then decrease immediately following the reward, as if the animal knew that another reward wouldn’t be arriving any time soon.
This may be of concern for human fixed-interval situations like biweekly or monthly paychecks, as work effort may be reduced immediately after a paycheck has been received (just as most students reduce studying effort in the days immediately following exams, because the next exams aren’t coming for a while).
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Bally slot machine on my pc. Game WinningsHee Haw carries a lucrative jackpot prize of five hundred thousand credits, which is granted for landing five wilds.
Variable-Interval (The Pop-Quiz)
In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement of a behavior is provided at a varying time interval since the last reinforcement. This means a pigeon might be rewarded for pecking after 10 seconds, or it might be rewarded after 1 minute, then after 5 minutes, then 5 seconds and the time interval between reinforcements is always changing. This schedule produces a slow and steady rate of response. The pigeon pecks steadily so it doesn’t miss any opportunities for reinforcement but there’s no need to rush, since that won’t influence the length of delays.
A human comparison might be a class with pop-quizzes for extra credit given at varying and unpredictable times. These would encourage students to study a little each day to always be prepared to earn some points, though they probably wouldn’t cram for hours and hours every night.
Superstitious Minds
Skinner also tried rewarding the animals at random, dropping food into the box at unpredictable times that didn’t correspond to any particular desired behavior. Rather than doing nothing and just waiting for the food to arrive, the animals who were rewarded randomly developed bizarre “superstitious” behaviors.
If the animal was lifting a leg or turning his head in the moment preceding the reward, this behavior would be reinforced, making it more likely to be repeated. If, by chance, this behavior was repeated as the reward was delivered again (randomly), this would further serve to reinforce the behavior. As a result, Skinner found pigeons turning in circles or hopping on one leg, simply as a result of this random reinforcement. From this we may view all sorts of superstitious human behaviors, from rain dances to lucky charms to salt thrown over the shoulder, as the result of chance occurrences of reinforcement.
Looking for more information on learning theory and behaviorism? This post is an excerpt from the learning chapter of Master Introductory Psychology. You can find this chapter in the ebook version of Volume 2 or in the complete print edition.
Slot Machine Rewarding Pattern Fixed Or Variable Costs
Schedules of reinforcement can affect the results of operant conditioning, which is frequently used in everyday life such as in the classroom and in parenting. Let’s examine the common types of schedule and their applications.
Table of Contents
Schedules Of Reinforcement
Operant conditioning is the procedure of learning through association to increase or decrease voluntary behavior using reinforcement or punishment.
Schedules of reinforcement are the rules that control the timing and frequency of reinforcer delivery to increase the likelihood a target behavior will happen again, strengthen or continue.
A schedule of reinforcement is a contingency schedule. The reinforcers are only applied when the target behavior has occurred, and therefore, the reinforcement is contingent on the desired behavior1.
There are two main categories of schedules: intermittent and non-intermittent.
Non-intermittent schedules apply reinforcement, or no reinforcement at all, after each correct response while intermittent schedules apply reinforcers after some, but not all, correct responses.
Non-intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
Two types of non-intermittent schedules are Continuous Reinforcement Schedule and Extinction.
Continuous Reinforcement
A continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF) presents the reinforcer after every performance of the desired behavior. This schedule reinforces target behavior every single time it occurs, and is the quickest in teaching a new behavior.
Continuous Reinforcement Examples
e.g. Continuous schedules of reinforcement are often used in animal training. The trainer rewards the dog to teach it new tricks. When the dog does a new trick correctly, its behavior is reinforced every time by a treat (positive reinforcement).
e.g. A continuous schedule also works well with very young children teaching them simple behaviors such as potty training. Toddlers are given candies whenever they use the potty. Their behavior is reinforced every time they succeed and receive rewards.
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement (Intermittent)
Once a new behavior is learned, trainers often turn to another type of schedule – partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule – to strengthen the new behavior.
A partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule rewards desired behaviors occasionally, but not every single time.
Behavior intermittently reinforced by a partial schedule is usually stronger. It is more resistant to extinction (more on this later). Therefore, after a new behavior is learned using a continuous schedule, an intermittent schedule is often applied to maintain or strengthen it.
Many different types of intermittent schedules are possible. The four major types of intermittent schedules commonly used are based on two different dimensions – time elapsed (interval) or the number of responses made (ratio). Each dimension can be categorized into either fixed or variable.
The four resulting intermittent reinforcement schedules are:
- Fixed interval schedule (FI)
- Fixed ratio schedule (FR)
- Variable interval schedule (VI)
- Variable ratio schedule (VR)
Fixed Interval Schedule
Interval schedules reinforce targeted behavior after a certain amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcement.
A fixed interval schedule delivers a reward when a set amount of time has elapsed. This schedule usually trains subjects, person, animal or organism, to time the interval, slow down the response rate right after a reinforcement and then quickly increase towards the end of the interval.
Slot Machine Rewarding Pattern Fixed Or Variable Sum
A “scalloping” pattern of break-run behavior is the characteristic of this type of reinforcement schedule. The subject pauses every time after the reinforcement is delivered and then behavior occurs at a faster rate as the next reinforcement approaches2.
Fixed Interval Example
College students studying for final exams is an example of the Fixed Interval schedule.
Most universities schedule fixed interval in between final exams.
Many students whose grades depend entirely on the exam performance don’t study much at the beginning of the semester, but they cram when it’s almost exam time.
Here, studying is the targeted behavior and the exam result is the reinforcement given after the final exam at the end of the semester.
Because an exam only occurs at fixed intervals, usually at the end of a semester, many students do not pay attention to studying during the semester until the exam time comes.
Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
A variable interval schedule delivers the reinforcer after a variable amount of time interval has passed since the previous reinforcement.
This schedule usually generates a steady rate of performance due to the uncertainty about the time of the next reward and is thought to be habit-forming3.
Variable Interval Example
Students whose grades depend on the performance of pop quizzes throughout the semester study regularly instead of cramming at the end.
Students know the teacher will give pop quizzes throughout the year, but they cannot determine when it occurs.
Without knowing the specific schedule, the student studies regularly throughout the entire time instead of postponing studying until the last minute.
Variable interval schedules are more effective than fixed interval schedules of reinforcement in teaching and reinforcing behavior that needs to be performed at a steady rate4.
Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)
A fixed ratio schedule delivers reinforcement after a certain number of responses are delivered.
Fixed ratio schedules produce high rates of response until a reward is received, which is then followed by a pause in the behavior.
Slot Machine Rewarding Pattern Fixed Or Variable Probability
Fixed Ratio Example
A toymaker produces toys and the store only buys toys in batches of 5. When the maker produces toys at a high rate, he makes more money.
In this case, toys are only required when all five have been made. The toy-making is rewarded and reinforced when five are delivered.
People who follow such a fixed ratio schedule usually take a break after they are rewarded and then the cycle of fast-production begins again.
Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)
Variable ratio schedules deliver reinforcement after a variable number of responses are made.
This schedule produces high and steady response rates.
Variable Ratio Example
Gambling at a slot machine or lottery games is a classic example of a variable ratio reinforcement schedule5.
Gambling rewards unpredictably. Each winning requires a different number of lever pulls. Gamblers keep pulling the lever many times in hopes of winning. Therefore, for some people, gambling is not only habit-forming but is also very addictive and hard to stop6.
Extinction
An extinction schedule (Ext) is a special type of non-intermittent reinforcement schedule, in which the reinforcer is discontinued leading to a progressive decline in the occurrence of the previously reinforced response.
How fast complete extinction happens depends partially on the reinforcement schedules used in the initial learning process.
Among the different types of reinforcement schedules, the variable-ratio schedule (VR) is the most resistant to extinction whereas the continuous schedule is the least7.
Schedules of Reinforcement in Parenting
Many parents use various types of reinforcement to teach new behavior, strengthen desired behavior or reduce undesired behavior.
A continuous schedule of reinforcement is often the best in teaching a new behavior. Once the response has been learned, intermittent reinforcement can be used to strengthen the learning.
Reinforcement Schedules Example
Let’s go back to the potty-training example.
When parents first introduce the concept of potty training, they may give the toddler a candy whenever they use the potty successfully. That is a continuous schedule.
After the child has been using the potty consistently for a few days, the parents would transition to only reward the behavior intermittently using variable reinforcement schedules.
Sometimes, parents may unknowingly reinforce undesired behavior.
Because such reinforcement is unintended, it is often delivered inconsistently. The inconsistency serves as a type of variable reinforcement schedule, leading to a learned behavior that is hard to stop even after the parents have stopped applying the reinforcement.
Variable Ratio Example in Parenting
When a toddler throws a tantrum in the store, parents usually refuse to give in. But once in a while, if they’re tired or in a hurry, they may decide to buy the candy, believing they will do it just that one time.
But from the child’s perspective, such concession is a reinforcer that encourages tantrum-throwing. Because the reinforcement (candy buying) is delivered at a variable schedule, the toddler ends up throwing fit regularly for the next give-in.
This is one reason why consistency is important in disciplining children.
Related: Discipline And Punishment
References
- Case DA, Fantino E. THE DELAY-REDUCTION HYPOTHESIS OF CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT: OBSERVING BEHAVIOR. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. Published online January 1981:93-108. doi:10.1901/jeab.1981.35-93
- Dews PB. Studies on responding under fixed-interval schedules of reinforcement: II. The scalloped pattern of the cumulative record. J Exp Anal Behav. Published online January 1978:67-75. doi:10.1901/jeab.1978.29-67
- DeRusso AL. Instrumental uncertainty as a determinant of behavior under interval schedules of reinforcement. Front Integr Neurosci. Published online 2010. doi:10.3389/fnint.2010.00017
- Schoenfeld W, Cumming W, Hearst E. ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1956;42(8):563-570. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16589906
- Dixon MR, Hayes LJ, Aban IB. Examining the Roles of Rule Following, Reinforcement, and Preexperimental Histories on Risk-Taking Behavior. Psychol Rec. Published online October 2000:687-704. doi:10.1007/bf03395378
- Redish AD, Jensen S, Johnson A, Kurth-Nelson Z. Reconciling reinforcement learning models with behavioral extinction and renewal: Implications for addiction, relapse, and problem gambling. Psychological Review. Published online July 2007:784-805. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.3.784
- Azrin NH, Lindsley OR. The reinforcement of cooperation between children. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Published online 1956:100-102. doi:10.1037/h0042490